Foreign Language Learning

Scientists have been searching for an accurate way to measure intelligence for many years. This search has led to multiple tests that claim to test intelligence. However, due to the many theories of intelligence, these tests vary from simply assessing a person’s knowledge, to testing reasoning skills. However, these tests tend to fail in the most key part in testing intelligence: Intelligence is widely considered a constant characteristic throughout a person’s life, and these scores on the tests can be easily affected by factors such as sickness and practice.

Sir Francis Galton (1869, 1883) quantified traits that were assumed to be correlated, and developed the first comprehensive test of intelligence. By the end of the 19th century, the foundation was laid for modern day intelligence testing (Wicket, 1998). In 1905, the French psychologist Alfred Binet published the first modern intelligence test to identify students who needed special help in coping with the school curriculum (Neiser, et al. 1996). Shortly thereafter in 1908 and 1911, Alfred Binet and Theodore Simon published revisions of the Binet intelligence test (Wicket). The mental age concept was adopted to express the results in adequate units. The concept is based on an individual’s performance in comparison to the average performance of individuals in a specific chronological age group (Kaplin, & Saccuzzo).

For the longest time, IQ tests have been considered to be absolute indicators of human intelligence. Massive disparities were noted in the tests conducted to check the

On the contrary, those people who scored low on one kinds of ability test, were more likely to score badly on others as well. Meanwhile, Spearman also concluded that intelligence is a cognitive ability which could be measured and expressed numerically.

Binet was involved in creating one of the more recent forms of intelligence test, referred to as the Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scale. A similar test is that formulated by Wechsler (Neisser et al. 1996). These led to the measure of IQ (“intelligence quotient”) being founded, where an individual’s “mental age is divided by their chronological age and multiplied by 100” (Gardner 2006, p. 3). The tests measure intelligence through verbal and non-verbal tasks, assessing scholastic aptitude, school achievement and specific abilities (Neisser et al. 1996, p. 78).

Each theory of intelligence has not only a different method of testing intelligence, but also a different definition of intelligence, which each creator ascribes to. Stanford-Binet Intelligence Scales (Terman, 1916), or IQ tests as they are commonly referred to as, are currently one of the most widely used tools for intelligence measurement, however, research suggests they are a poor predictor of future academic success for particular cultural groups (Gardner, 1993). In one of the largest neurocognitive-based intelligence studies performed to date, it was revealed through the observation of neuroimaging data that IQ scores alone were not likely to indicate a fundamental intellectual ability because intelligence is composed of multiple anatomically distinct components (Hampshire, Highfield, Parkin, & Owen, 2012). Considering this development, it would appear that IQ tests are only measuring one subsection of intelligence, located in the frontoparietal cortex (Gray, Chabris, & Braver, 2003; Hampshire, Highfield, Parkin, & Owen, 2012). In order to provide analogous statistics to base research upon, it is vital to create multifaceted, culturally sensitive measurements because cultures differ greatly in the emphasis they place on certain aspects of intelligence (Sternberg, Grigorenko, & Kidd, 2005).

Flynn’s sub-claim that there are seven different types of intelligence: linguistic, logical-mathematical, musical, spatial, bodily-kinesthetic, self-oriented personal, and other-directed personal, supports Warwick’s idea that intelligence is a multi-dimensional entity because it provides an explanation of the multi-dimensions that Warwick is talking about when referring to intelligence and increase the strength of his argument. By addressing the seven types of intelligence, Flynn is able to further support his main claim by showing that there is more to intelligence than having an avid knowledge in math and being able to read. By using this as evidence, Warwick would be able to show how measuring intelligence through a “one-dimensional single value” (202) is inaccurate, thus strengthening his argument by showing a credible source and example and further extending on Flynn’s idea of the role that sociological imagination plays when defining

Intelligence as defined by the Cambridge dictionary is the ability to learn, understand, and make judgments or have opinions that are based on reason.1 There is much debate and controversy on this subject and psychologists do not all agree upon a standard definition. Yet, one of the very first definitions of intelligence was developed by the psychologists responsible for the development of the first intelligence test, Binet and Simon (1905) who argued that the essence of intelligence is: ‘to judge well, to comprehend well, to reason well’.2 Another sample definition was provided later by Heim, in 1970, who argued that ‘intelligent activity consists in grasping the essentials in a situation and responding appropriately to them’.3 There are also arguments surrounding how many different types of intelligence there are, as well as the intelligence theories of psychology. However elusive, we can ascertain that all psychologists have universally agreed upon general intelligence (g), an expression devised by the English psychologist Charles Spearman and defined as ‘a mental attribute called on for virtually any task’.4 This essay will inform the reader of the different methods proposed and used by psychologists to assess ability and discuss their evaluations.

Intelligence tests even in these days remain somewhat controversial, from its interpretations, to their classifications in scoring on bell curves. So is the magnitude of debate, that many professionals in assessments question the value of these tests. One aspect of much controversy is the use of a single or multiple scores to determine intelligence. Some general intelligence assessments only use a score, g. This apparently reflects the variance underlying shared in different series of tests performance. Nevertheless, recent theories have suggested that human intelligence can be better measured in terms of multiple types of intelligence rather than a single score. One of those theories is the gf-gc; this theory indicates that there are two types of intelligence: f = fluid and c = crystalized.

In researching the types of tests that are administered to determine intelligence, it became very clear that there were many differing opinions surrounding the efficacy of intelligence testing. There exists compelling information that suggest there is a lack of ability for any test to clearly identify and measure intelligence. It is very clearly noted that there is a question of the ability for academics based testing to measure a persons intelligence. One of the most noted tests in the United States that is used to measure the potential of students to perform in an educational setting is the Scholastic Assessment Test (SAT). Through the years this test has undergone many changes in attempts to overcome challenges in correctly

Intelligence is not easily measured; there are many factors that influence the way we determine whether or not someone is considered “intelligent”, and many more to rank who is more intelligent than others. James R. Flynn, in his piece “The Sociological Imagination, and Kevin Warwick, in his work “Into the Unknown, both share a common argument: intelligence is subjective; therefore, social and environmental context should be considered. Both authors expand on the idea of nature versus nurture. Flynn’s main claim is that the way that intelligence is measured is flawed which is supported by his use of sub claims and evidence, such as intelligence is dependent on social scenarios and that Jensen measures intelligence only through Intelligence Quotient (IQ) and Reaction Times (RTs), in order to illustrate what happens when social awareness recedes into the background, he offers 14 specific examples that also serve as reasons (181). Warwick extends on Flynn’s argument; his main claim is that within a particular group what is regarded as intelligence is based on a general consensus, which naturally depends on the culture and values of that society (199). Although they extend on each others’ arguments, they have a particular opposing view: Flynn believes that IQ tests could be an accurate measurement of intelligence if social context was in taken into account; yet Warwick believes this impossible

It wasn’t until the year 1920 that different types of intelligence were defined. It was proposed by a man named EL Thorndike, and he separated the different types of intelligence into three categories: abstract, mechanical, and social intelligence. Years later, it was argued that social intelligence is somewhat

Every few years new foreign language teaching methods arrive on the scene. New textbooks appear far more frequently. New methods and textbooks may reflect current developments in linguistic/applied linguistic theory or recent pedagogical trends. Sometimes they are said to be based on recent developments in language learning theory and research. For example, one approach to teaching may emphasize the value of having students to imitate and practice a set of correct sentences

Defining and testing for intelligence is a controversial issue and has been since the first intelligence test was created and administered. Many forms of intelligence and achievement tests exist and using a particular test is a matter of preference and depending on the areas of intelligence is desired to be measured. This paper will start by critiquing the major definitions of intelligence, and determine the best definition for each chosen intelligence and achievement instruments. It will also evaluate the reliability, validity, normative procedures, and biasness of each intelligence measurement. The measurements will be compared and contrasted while also considering the ethical implications of

When a person utters the word “intelligence,” people tend to think of a genius like Albert Einstein developing some obscure equation that the great majority of the population will never understand. The problem with the definition of intelligence is that people relate intelligence to words like “genius” which require intelligence but do not have the same definition as intelligence. Often, people try to use related words to define intelligence, but these words are unable to define intelligence since many are only different levels of intelligence. While many definitions try to encompass the meaning of intelligence and various definitions describe a small part of intelligence, no definition completely explains intelligence, because